Gerald Grace,
borrowing from the sociological constructs of Pierre Bourdieu, speaks of the
significance of the spiritual and cultural
capital of religious orders in providing
a significant catalyst in the development of Catholic education in
England and Wales.[1]
This article endeavours to explore the extent to which spiritual capital is a
critical issue for Catholic schools and ways in which such capital may be
strengthened within Catholic school communities. It will investigate the
background the term, suggest links with other key concepts such as culture
before surveying potential challenges and opportunities for 21st
century Catholic schools.
John Lydon
The nature of spiritual capital
In The Forms of Capital,[2]
Bourdieu begins by arguing for an inclusive rather a reductionist view of
capital, defining the concept as a reality broader than a reserve of wealth in the form of money or
property owned by a person or business and human resources of economic value.
He suggests that capital presents itself in two further fundamental guises beyond the narrow confines of accumulated pecuniary assets available
for use in the production of further monetary assets to embrace social and
cultural capital. Bourdieu defines social capital as made up of social
obligations (‘connections’) which is convertible, in certain conditions, into
economic capital thus reflecting a fundamental Bourdieusian belief in an
interdependent relationship between the three forms of capital. [3]
In the context
of Grace’s use of Bourdieu, the concept of cultural capital is more germane.
Bourdieu argues that cultural capital exists in three forms:
§ Embodied state
– in the form of long-lasting dispositions of the mind and body
§ Objectified
state – in the form of cultural goods
§ Institutionalized
state – in the form, for example, of educational qualifications.
Bourdieu claims
that he developed the notion of cultural capital to explain the unequal
academic achievement of students from different social classes rather than
uphold the traditional view that academic achievement was simply the
consequence of innate ability or aptitude. In an tangential attempt to explain
why some schools appear to have maintained a distinctive Catholic ethos it
would, presumably, be possible to include
mission statements and written accounts of distinctive charisms of, for
example, religious orders in the ‘objective state’ category in so far as they
constitute an articulation of the lived reality ( an ‘embodiment’ of) of such
charisms. With regard to the institutionalized state, the schools which have
emerged as a result of the long-lasting dispositions of members of religious
orders could be regarded as having accrued cultural capital in this context,
representing the expression of the distinctive charism or ethos by a living
institution or community.
Grace builds on
Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital in his adoption of the term ‘spiritual
capital’. Having interviewed sixty headteachers in three different cities in
the United Kingdom
“
Spiritual capital is defined here as resources of faith and values derived from
commitment to a religious tradition.”[4]
Grace is, in
effect, expressing a certain quality which he had encountered when interviewing
his sample of headteachers, a quality which becomes a “source of empowerment
because it provides a transcendent impulse which can guide judgement and action
in the mundane world”.[5]
He maintains this spiritual capital is derived from the
formation experienced by those headteachers in their secondary schools and
teacher training colleges, with a particularly powerful influence arising from
the various religious orders present in these institutions.
While Grace
recognises that the building up of spiritual capital will, in the first place,
involve a knowledge of the deposit of, in this case, the Catholic faith, the
crucial nature of such capital resides in the ability of school leaders to
embody such capital. In other words the extent to which spiritual capital
constitutes a source for empowerment will be in proportion to the extent to
which headteachers embody such a resource by demonstrating a personal faith
commitment together with an ability to make that which is spiritual and
transcendent a living reality in dealing the business of everyday life in
schools. In the context of Grace’s work in general, the efficacy of such
capital will be tested most rigorously by the extent to which schools are able
to maintain a distinctively Catholic culture in the face of the relentless
challenges posed by the pervading culture of consumerism which Grace highlights
as a potentially corrupting influence.[6]
It could be
argued that Grace’s definition of spiritual capital in terms of “resources of
faith” is overly general.[7]
In reviewing and contrasting research in Catholic education in the pre- and
post-Vatican II periods, he articulates findings which point to the extent to
which a distinctive Catholic ethos has had a positive influence on behaviour
and academic outcomes. He does not, however, explore in any depth specific
characteristics in respect of individual leaders in relation to the resources
of faith that contribute to such an ethos or culture, the latter being Grace’s
preferred term. It could also be argued that Grace focuses on the influence of
headteachers as opposed to leadership teams or core groups of committed
teachers. He does, in fact, recognise the limitations of his application of the
concept of spiritual capital in asserting that “the resources of spiritual
capital in Catholic schooling extend well beyond the that possessed by
individual headteachers”. [8]
Links with
Aquinas, Groome and Flynn
Habitus, Depth
Structures and Culture
Notwithstanding
these limitations, the concept of
spiritual capital as articulated by Grace is regarded by James Arthur as “a
major insight or thesis in the context of maintaining the mission and integrity
of Catholic schooling”.[9]
In attempting to draw out what is constituted by the concept of ‘spiritual
capital’ in relation to the individual headteacher , Grace draws on Bourdieu’s
use of the term habitus by which he
means a lasting, general and adaptable way of thinking and acting in conformity
to a systematic world-view.[10]
In defining habitus as
“deep-structured cultural dispositions within a community or institution”
Grace’s use of the term ‘disposition’
resonates not only with Bourdieu’s ideas but also with Aquinas’ concept
of habitus or disposition as an abiding characteristic in relation to the
individual person.
The notion that
habitus is a perennial as opposed to
a transitional reality constitutes a seamless connection between the work of
Bourdieu and Grace on the one hand and Aquinas on the other. Grace’s use of the
term ‘deep-structured’ further resonates with Thomas Groome’s concept of the
depth-structures of Catholicism. Groome[11]
argues that the most effective schools have a
characteristic set of ideals-they value people, they are optimistic about
people and society, they promote community and relationships, they help to
develop spirituality, they emphasize issues of justice and peace, they respect
diversity, and they teach critical thinking. For Groome these values
arise out of the “depth structures” or “core convictions” of Christianity and
they are embedded deeply in the “ethos and style” (the total culture) of the
school.
The
connection between Grace/Bourdieu’s use of the term habitus with that of Aquinas is encapsulated by Groome when he
suggests that the characteristics of the depth-structures of Catholicism
“often exist beneath Catholic Christianity’s institutional expression or
accidental features. Much as the deep
structures of people’s characters shape who they are, so the depth
structures of Catholicism combine as its distinctiveness, albeit with varied
expressions.”[12]
The
concept of habitus is linked
intimately with that of school culture since the latter derives from the
collective contributions of members of a particular school community. Timothy Cook
makes the claim that when religious communities staffed Catholic schools,
socialisation of teachers occurred naturally as the religious communities went
about their work. He then goes on to emphasise the significance of communities
of religious in designing and building Catholic culture in the Catholic schools
of the USA.[13]
While a full
discussion around the nature of culture is beyond the scope of this thesis, it
is interesting to note that the following definitions of culture, on the one
hand, and Catholic culture on the other are linked in that both emphasise the
importance of embodiment. Thomas Sergiovanni and John Corbally define culture
as “the system of values, symbols and shared meanings of a group including the embodiment of these values, symbols and
meanings”[14],
echoing Groome’s description of depth-structures. Marcellin Flynn’s definition
of Catholic school culture reflects the first definition, replacing the word
‘embodiment’ with a more specific reference to the activity of the members of
the school community and its formative influence:
“
The culture of a Catholic school expresses the core beliefs, values,
traditions, symbols and patterns of behaviour which provide meaning to the
school community and which help to shape the lives of students, teachers and
parents. In short it is the way we do things round here.”[15]
Spiritual Capital and Vocation
Grace
argues cogently that spiritual capital is derived from the past school leaders
and teachers who have been immersed in the habitus
of the depth structures of the Catholic
school system, particularly that found within schools sponsored by religious
orders. Such spiritual capital has, according to Grace, benefited the Catholic
educational mission internationally, particularly in the context of Catholic
school leadership. He then goes on to suggest that the leadership modelled by
members of religious orders has led to the promotion of a sense of vocation
among Catholic school teachers and leaders and, as a result of programmes of
formation led to the realisation that the mission of a teacher constitutes
being both a “professional and a witness”.[16]
The sense in which having a vocation and being a professional are, in essence,
simply aspects of the pathway of discipleship seems to be encapsulated in the
two references to the word ‘vocation’ found in the Declaration on Christian
Education of the Second Vatican Council:
“Beautiful indeed and of great importance is the vocation of all
those who aid parents in fulfilling their duties and who, as representatives of
the human community, undertake the task of education in schools. This vocation
demands special qualities of mind and heart, very careful preparation, and
continuing readiness to renew and to adapt.”[17]
The
notion of witness reflects the sacramental perspective, that all ministry
should be modelled on that of Christ, in the context of discipleship and the
call to all the baptised to share in His divine life. While the sacramental
perspective in general is rooted in the Incarnation and expresses the belief
that God is encountered in the world through the mediated presence of Christ
and the Church, more specifically in the context of Catholic education this
perspective focuses on the person of the teacher who, in essence, models his or
her ministry on that of Christ. Both Timothy Cook and Grace recognise that the
intensive formation programmes of religious orders ensured that teachers were
immersed in the culture of their particular congregation and, while there were
distinctive characteristics within such cultures, the notion of modelling or
emulation constituted a consistent paradigm.
Spiritual Capital – Contemporary Challenges
There has been much written about
the impact of the decline in the number of religious in schools. In a wider
context scholars such as James Arthur have questioned whether
there is still a critical mass of English Catholic parents, teachers and pupils
associated with Catholic schooling who are able and willing to sustain and
ensure that the Church’s unique teaching on the educational purpose of
presenting a Catholic worldview to children. This article will focus on
Catholic teachers and the extent to which spiritual capital is being accrued
among a critical mass in order to sustain the Catholic Church’s distinctive
educational vision.
Defining a “critical mass” presents the
first challenge. The Catholic Education Service (CES) insists that, in Primary
and Secondary Schools, the Head Teacher, Deputy Heads and the Head (Co-ordinator)
of Religious Education “are to be filled by baptised
and practising Catholics.”[18]
This must constitute a minimum and one would presume that the School Chaplain
would also be included in this category. The CES, in its latest published
census, (2012) reports that overall 55%
of teachers in maintained schools in England and Wales are Catholics
constituting 68.1% of Primary teachers and 44 of Secondary teachers. The
statistics do not, however, affirm whether or not these teachers are practising
Catholics as defined by Mgr. Marcus Stock:
“…someone
who has been sacramentally initiated into the Catholic Church and who adheres
to those substantive life choices which do not impair them for receiving the
sacraments of the Church and which will not in any way be detrimental or
prejudicial to the religious ethos and character of the school.”[19]
If Grace Davie[20]
is right in suggesting that Europe is marked by a culture of “believing without
belonging”, characterised by a profound mismatch
between religious values that people profess (believing), and actual churchgoing
and religious practice (belonging), it could be at least postulated that a the
religious lives of a proportion of the overall 55% of Catholic teachers will
not reflect Stock’s specific definition. While it may be an overstatement to
suggest that the majority have moved from an institutionally Catholic identity
to a more autonomous search for spirituality, one of the key questions for
Catholic school leaders revolves around the promotion and maintenance of
spiritual capital as an empowering and motivating reality. In other words a
critical moment has been reached when there is a need to move from defining
spiritual capital to researching effective means of sustaining it.
I have argued elsewhere[21] that, for schools with
religious order trusteeships, it is possible to transmit the distinctive charism
of the Order to committed lay people, primarily by the modelling of that charism by religious, when
present, and committed lay people. Evidence suggests that the majority of
teachers in one network of schools are dedicated to maintaining the charism, notwithstanding
the challenge of retaining a school’s Catholic mission in a culture marked by
an ever-increasing emphasis on performativity.
A second
strategy could focus on a reservoir of recently retired Catholic headteachers
who possess this capital. This would involve the creation of a project
organised by the Bishops’ Conference through the Catholic Education Service
within which such headteachers could have a critical influence on their
successors. Recent research by this author among Catholic headteachers in the
South East of England found that their emphasis was on ensuring that future
Catholic school leaders are theologically literate which could open a window
for formation of aspiring deputy heads
involving recently retired heads.
This latter research did,
however, reveal that the headteachers interviewed placed a greater deal of
emphasis on modelling Catholic identity rather than formation programmes for
aspiring heads. In a recent article Dr John McDade suggests “we have said too much to Europe, and Europe doesn’t
want to hear any more from us, and that is a psychological condition which is
very difficult to address.” He goes on to suggest that the focus now should be
on learning to witness in coherent ways and giving priority to the category of
witness.
McDade’s point is deeply relevant to spiritual
capital and Catholic schools and resonates this author’s previous research in
which headteachers in Salesian schools were convinced that their distinctive
ethos would be maintained by living it rather than talking about it, the latter
being significant only in a supportive sense, contributing to solidarity around
a common witness modelled in the lives of teachers themselves.
[1] Grace G., (2002), Catholic
School :, Mission ,
Markets and Morality, London
[2] Bourdieu, P., (1997), The
Forms of Capital in Halsey, A H., et al (1997), Education: Culture, Economy, Society, Oxford
[3] See Silva E B., & Edwards L., (2005), Operationalizing Bourdieu on Capitals: A Discussion on ‘The
Construction of the Object’, Manchester
[4] Grace, op.cit:236
[5] Grace, op.cit:236
[6] Grace, op.cit: Chapter 8 – Market
Culture and Catholic Values in Education
[7] Grace has, however, elaborated his original definition in more
recent scholarship see Grace, G., (2010),
Renewing Spiritual Capital: An
Urgent Priority for the Future of Catholic Education Internationally in
Grace, G., (Editor), International Studies in Catholic Education,
London
[8] Grace, op.cit:238
[9] Arthur, J., (2002), Review of Catholic
Schools: Mission Markets and Morality in British Journal of Educational Studies,
VOL 50, NO. 4, Blackwell, Oxford
[10] Bourdieu, P., (1990), The
Logic of Practice, Cambridge
[11] See Groome, T.H., (1998),
Educating for Life, Allen ,
Texas USA
[12] Groome: op.cit:56 (the author’s italics)
[13] Cook, T. (2003), Architects
of School Culture, Washington D.C. (USA
[14] Sergiovanni T.J., & Corbally J.E., (1984), Leadership and Organizational Culture, Chicago, University of Illinois
Press
[15] Flynn, M, (1993), The Culture
of Catholic Schools ,
Homebush, NSW (Australia ), St Paul
[16] Grace: op.cit:238
[17] Pope Paul VI (Second Vatican Council), (1965), Gravissimum
Educationis (Declaration on Christian Education), London
[18] McMahon, Bishop M., (2009), Memorandum on Appointment of Teachers to
Catholic Schools, published on the Catholic Education Service website
http://www.catholiceducation.org.uk/
[19] Stock, M., (2009), Catholic
Schools and the Definition of a Practising Catholic, Birmingham,
Archdiocese of Birmingham Schools Commission. Mgr. Stock, now General Secretary
of the Bishops’ Conference of England & Wales, repeats this definition in
his revised (2012) publication Christ at
the Centre. (London, CTS)
[20] Davie, G., (1994) Religion in Britain since 1945:
Believing without Belonging, Oxford: Blackwell, 1994
[21] Lydon, J., (2009), Transmission of the Charism : A Major Challenge for Catholic Education
in Grace, G., (Editor), International
Studies in Catholic Education, London, Routledge
Nessun commento:
Posta un commento